TY - JOUR ID - 1143 T1 - When is a reservoir not a reservoir A1 - Ashford,R.W. Y1 - 2003/// RP - IN FILE SP - 1495 EP - 1496 JF - Emerging Infectious Diseases JA - Emerg.Infect.Dis. VL - 9  ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1433 T1 - Cattle eradication and malnutrition in under five's: a natural experiment in Botswana A1 - Boonstra,E. A1 - Lindbaek,M. A1 - Fidzani,B. A1 - Bruusgaard,D. Y1 - 2001/08// RP - IN FILE SP - 877 EP - 882 JA - Public Health Nutr. VL - 4 N2 - BACKGROUND: An outbreak of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) in the northern part of Botswana in 1996 was contained through eradication of all heads of cattle in Ngamiland district (Ngami East and West) in the period April 1996 to February 1997. This disaster posed a serious threat to those who depended on the livestock sector for sustenance and to the nutrition security of the population, especially the under five's. AIM: The aim of this study was to assess the impact of the cattle eradication on the nutritional status of children. METHOD: A secondary analysis of existing data from the Botswana National Nutrition Surveillance System enabled us to study the impact of this disaster on malnutrition in the under five's by comparing quarterly malnutrition rates for Ngami East with national figures for the period of January 1995 to March 1998. RESULTS: While the risk for malnutrition among under five's in Ngami East increased from 0.046 to 0.105 during the study period, giving a relative risk of 2.299, the increase in risk for Botswana was from 0.133 to 0.139, giving a relative risk of 1.048. The attributable risk for cattle eradication impact on malnutrition was 4.6% for Botswana and 54.4% for Ngami East. CONCLUSION: The cattle eradication impacted seriously on the food and nutrition security of the under five's in Ngami East, compared with the country as a whole AD - Institute of General Practice and Community Medicine, University of Oslo, Norway. eelco_boonstra@hotmail.com UR - PM:11527511 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1474 T1 - Genetic selection of low fertile Onchocerca volvulus by ivermectin treatment A1 - Bourguinat,C. A1 - Pion,S.D. A1 - Kamgno,J. A1 - Gardon,J. A1 - Duke,B.O. A1 - Boussinesq,M. A1 - Prichard,R.K. Y1 - 2007/// RP - IN FILE SP - e72 JA - PLoS Negl.Trop.Dis. VL - 1 N2 - BACKGROUND: Onchocerca volvulus is the causative agent of onchocerciasis, or "river blindness". Ivermectin has been used for mass treatment of onchocerciasis for up to 18 years, and recently there have been reports of poor parasitological responses to the drug. Should ivermectin resistance be developing, it would have a genetic basis. We monitored genetic changes in parasites obtained from the same patients before use of ivermectin and following different levels of ivermectin exposure. METHODS AND FINDINGS: O. volvulus adult worms were obtained from 73 patients before exposure to ivermectin and in the same patients following three years of annual or three-monthly treatment at 150 microg/kg or 800 microg/kg. Genotype frequencies were determined in beta-tubulin, a gene previously found to be linked to ivermectin selection and resistance in parasitic nematodes. Such frequencies were also determined in two other genes, heat shock protein 60 and acidic ribosomal protein, not known to be linked to ivermectin effects. In addition, we investigated the relationship between beta-tubulin genotype and female parasite fertility. We found a significant selection for beta-tubulin heterozygotes in female worms. There was no significant selection for the two other genes. Quarterly ivermectin treatment over three years reduced the frequency of the beta-tubulin "aa" homozygotes from 68.6% to 25.6%, while the "ab" heterozygotes increased from 20.9% to 69.2% in the female parasites. The female worms that were homozygous at the beta-tubulin locus were more fertile than the heterozygous female worms before treatment (67% versus 37%; p = 0.003) and twelve months after the last dose of ivermectin in the groups treated annually (60% versus 17%; p<0.001). Differences in fertility between heterozygous and homozygous worms were less apparent three months after the last treatment in the groups treated three-monthly. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that ivermectin is causing genetic selection on O. volvulus. This genetic selection is associated with a lower reproductive rate in the female parasites. We hypothesize that this genetic selection indicates that a population of O. volvulus, which is more tolerant to ivermectin, is being selected. This selection could have implications for the development of ivermectin resistance in O. volvulus and for the ongoing onchocerciasis control programmes AD - Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, Sainte Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, Canada UR - PM:17989786 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1375 T1 - 'One medicine---one pathology': are veterinary and human pathology prepared? A1 - Cardiff,R.D. A1 - Ward,J.M. A1 - Barthold,S.W. Y1 - 2008/01// RP - IN FILE SP - 18 EP - 26 JF - Laboratory Investigation JA - Lab.Invest. VL - 88 N2 - The American Medical Association and the American Veterinary Medical Association have recently approved resolutions supporting 'One Medicine' or 'One Health' that bridge the two professions. The concept is far from novel. Rudolf Virchow, the Father of Modern Pathology, and Sir William Osler, the Father of Modern Medicine, were outspoken advocates of the concept. The concept in its modern iteration was re-articulated in the 1984 edition of Calvin Schwabe's 'Veterinary Medicine and Human Health.' The veterinary and medical pathology professions are steeped in a rich history of 'One Medicine,' but they have paradoxically parted ways, leaving the discipline of pathology poorly positioned to contribute to contemporary science. The time has come for not only scientists but also all pathologists to recognize the value in comparative pathology, the consequences of ignoring the opportunity and, most importantly, the necessity of preparing future generations to meet the challenge inherent in the renewed momentum for 'One Medicine.' The impending glut of new genetically engineered mice creates an urgent need for prepared investigators and pathologists AD - Center for Comparative Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA. rdcardiff@ucdavis.edu UR - PM:18040269 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1445 T1 - Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus as an agent of emerging and reemerging infection A1 - Cheng,V.C. A1 - Lau,S.K. A1 - Woo,P.C. A1 - Yuen,K.Y. Y1 - 2007/10// RP - IN FILE SP - 660 EP - 694 JF - Clinical Microbiology Reviews JA - Clin.Microbiol.Rev. VL - 20 N2 - Before the emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus (SARS-CoV) in 2003, only 12 other animal or human coronaviruses were known. The discovery of this virus was soon followed by the discovery of the civet and bat SARS-CoV and the human coronaviruses NL63 and HKU1. Surveillance of coronaviruses in many animal species has increased the number on the list of coronaviruses to at least 36. The explosive nature of the first SARS epidemic, the high mortality, its transient reemergence a year later, and economic disruptions led to a rush on research of the epidemiological, clinical, pathological, immunological, virological, and other basic scientific aspects of the virus and the disease. This research resulted in over 4,000 publications, only some of the most representative works of which could be reviewed in this article. The marked increase in the understanding of the virus and the disease within such a short time has allowed the development of diagnostic tests, animal models, antivirals, vaccines, and epidemiological and infection control measures, which could prove to be useful in randomized control trials if SARS should return. The findings that horseshoe bats are the natural reservoir for SARS-CoV-like virus and that civets are the amplification host highlight the importance of wildlife and biosecurity in farms and wet markets, which can serve as the source and amplification centers for emerging infections AD - State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, Research Centre of Infection and Immunology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China UR - PM:17934078 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1450 T1 - Praziquantel: is there real resistance and are there alternatives? A1 - Cioli,D. Y1 - 2000/12// RP - IN FILE SP - 659 EP - 663 JA - Curr.Opin.Infect.Dis. VL - 13 N2 - The low cure rates obtained with praziquantel in a Senegalese focus of schistosomiasis can best be interpreted on the basis of epidemiological factors, and are unlikely to be connected with any drug resistance in the parasite. Schistosome isolates obtained in Egypt from uncured patients present evidence of lower susceptibility to the drug, albeit to a rather limited extent. Similarly, laboratory schistosomes subjected to repeated passages under drug pressure are partly insensitive to the drug. Oxamniquine is at present the only available alternative to praziquantel. Research and development of new antischistosomal drugs is urgently needed AD - Institute of Cell Biology, Rome, Italy UR - PM:11964838 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1434 T1 - Endemic stability--a veterinary idea applied to human public health A1 - Coleman,P.G. A1 - Perry,B.D. A1 - Woolhouse,M.E. Y1 - 2001/04/21/ RP - IN FILE SP - 1284 EP - 1286 JA - Lancet VL - 357 N2 - Endemic stability is an epidemiological state of a population, in which clinical disease is scarce despite high level of infection. The notion was developed to describe patterns of tick-borne disease in cattle. However, we propose a general model of endemic stability that is applicable to a broader range of diseases that are important in public health, including malaria, rubella, and mumps. We postulate that endemic stability requires only that (1) the probability, or severity, of clinical disease after infection increases with age, and (2) after one infection, the probability that subsequent infections result in disease is reduced. We present these criteria in simple mathematical terms. Our hypothesis predicts that partial disease control activities might, under certain circumstances, lead to an increase in disease incidence. We discuss the implications for public health interventions AD - Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, EH25 9RG, Roslin, UK. p.coleman@cgiar.org UR - PM:11418173 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1107 T1 - Epidemiology of Mycobacterium bovis infection in animals and humans, with particular reference to Africa A1 - Cosivi,O. A1 - Meslin,F.X. A1 - Daborn,C.J. A1 - Grange,J.M. Y1 - 1995/09// RP - NOT IN FILE SP - 733 EP - 746 JF - Revue Scientifique et Technique de l'Office International des Epizooties JA - Rev.Sci.Tech.OIE VL - 14 N2 - The epidemiology of Mycobacterium bovis infection in animals and humans is described, together with a review of available reports on the distribution and prevalence of this mycobacteriosis in Africa. The significance of these reports is considered, with particular emphasis on the potential zoonotic importance of bovine tuberculosis as a cause for public health concern in Africa. Published data describing tuberculosis in Europe in the 1930s and 1940s show that bovine tuberculosis was considered to be a significant zoonosis: M. bovis was responsible for more than 50% of cervical lymphadenitis cases in children. Despite the paucity of information on M. bovis infection in Africa, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that it is widely distributed and is found at significantly high prevalence in some populations of animals. Some epidemiological conditions for the spread of M. bovis infection between animals and humans are very similar in Africa today to those in Europe in the 1930s, with the added and potent impact of the epidemic of human immunodeficiency virus infection. The public health threat of tuberculosis in Africa requires urgent investigation through collaborative veterinary/medical research programmes AD - Division of Communicable Diseases, World Health Organisation, Geneva, Switzerland ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1380 T1 - Predictable and unpredictable evolution of antibiotic resistance A1 - Courvalin,P. Y1 - 2008/07// RP - IN FILE SP - 4 EP - 16 JF - Journal of Internal Medicine JA - J.Intern.Med. VL - 264 N2 - Evolution of bacteria towards antibiotic resistance is unavoidable as it represents a particular aspect of the general evolution of bacteria. Thus, at the very best, the only hope we can have in the field of resistance is to delay dissemination of resistant bacteria or resistance genes. Resistance to antibiotics in bacteria can result from mutations in resident structural or regulatory genes or from horizontal acquisition of foreign genetic information. In this review, we will consider the predictable future of the relationship between bacteria and antibiotics AD - Unite des Agents Antibacteriens, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France. pcourval@pasteur.fr UR - PM:18397243 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1439 T1 - Chikungunya epidemic: global and Indian scenario A1 - Das,S. A1 - Kolher,R.P. A1 - Mane,B.G. A1 - Singh,J.P. A1 - Singh,A.P. Y1 - 2007/03// RP - IN FILE SP - 37 EP - 43 JF - Journal of Communicable Diseases JA - J.Commun.Dis. VL - 39 N2 - Chikungunya is a disease of zoonotic importance affecting man with non-human primates as a main reservoir. Recently the world has seen its outbreaks in Asia and Africa affecting large population. The disease has re-emerged after 2 long decades. Other part of the world reported it as a disease which is introduced through travelers. The known vectors of Chikungunya are Aedes mosquitoes, notably Aedes aegypti and A. albopiticus. Although, the people of rural areas are among more risk groups, the disease spread very rapidly among urban population. The disease shows epidemic pattern with severe arthralgia and usually without any mortality but in the recent outbreak it has shown mortality also. Thus it is the major cause of public health concern. Understanding the public health significance of disease, there is a need of continuous monitoring and surveillance of the virus in both human and animal population AD - Division of Veterinary Public Health, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India UR - PM:18338715 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1449 T1 - Resistance of Schistosoma mansoni to praziquantel: is there a problem? A1 - Doenhoff,M.J. A1 - Kusel,J.R. A1 - Coles,G.C. A1 - Cioli,D. Y1 - 2002/09// RP - IN FILE SP - 465 EP - 469 JF - Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene JA - Trans.Roy.Soc.Trop.Med.Hyg. VL - 96 N2 - Evidence for resistance to praziquantel (PZQ) in Schistosoma mansoni has been sought in parasites taken from treated, but uncured human patients, and in a laboratory isolate of S. mansoni subjected to successive passages under drug pressure. Patients from villages in Egypt and Senegal have yielded isolates that can tolerate higher dosages of PZQ than other ostensible control isolates when passaged and subjected to drug treatment in mice. In vitro tests on these and the laboratory-selected isolate support the conclusion that a degree of resistance to PZQ can occur in S. mansoni, but the levels of drug resistance found so far are low. Preliminary studies have begun on these isolates to identify genetic, physiological and morphological characteristics associated with PZQ resistance and some of these may find use as markers for monitoring whether or not resistance is developing in endemic areas where the drug is used. More intensive application of PZQ can be expected in future, particularly in other parts of Africa, and vigilance will be needed to ensure that it continues to be useful as a drug for treatment of schistosomiasis. Further work is needed to elucidate the mode of action of PZQ and there is already a need for alternative drugs to treat PZQ-resistant schistosomiasis, such as already exists in northern Senegal AD - School of Biological Sciences, University of Wales, Bangor, Deiniol Road, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, Wales, UK. m.doenhoff@bangor.ac.uk UR - PM:12474468 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1277 T1 - Patients' beliefs: do they affect tuberculosis control? A study in a rural district of South Africa A1 - Edginton,M.E. A1 - Sekatane,C.S. A1 - Goldstein,S.J. Y1 - 2002/// RP - IN FILE SP - 1075 EP - 1082 JF - International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease JA - Int.J.Tuberc.Lung Dis. J1 - Int J Tuberc.Lung Dis. VL - 6 N2 - SETTING: A rural district of South Africa. OBJECTIVES: To describe the beliefs and experiences about tuberculosis of patients and community members and to suggest how these affect presentation to health services and treatment adherence. DESIGN: A descriptive study using structured interviews with individual patients, and focus group interviews with patients and community groups. RESULTS: There is a strong belief in this community that tuberculosis is the result of breaking cultural rules that demand abstinence from sex after the death of a family member and after a woman has a spontaneous abortion. People believe that the resulting disease can only be treated by traditional healers. This delays presentation to hospitals or clinics. There is also a belief in a 'western' type TB that can spread from sufferers or is due to environmental pollution or to smoking or alcohol excesses. A number of factors were cited that influenced adherence to treatment. These included the stigma of TB, the belief that there should be abstinence from sex while on treatment, difficulties accessing health services, long waits and unacceptable health worker attitudes. CONCLUSIONS: With the increasing rates of tuberculosis in South Africa, strenuous measures are needed to implement a good control programme that will increase the cure rate of tuberculosis patients. The results of this study suggest the need for health workers to learn about local beliefs that may influence presentation and adherence, and for traditional and western health workers to collaborate. ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1456 T1 - Malaria. Signs of drug resistance rattle experts, trigger bold plan A1 - Enserink,M. Y1 - 2008/12/19/ RP - IN FILE SP - 1776 JF - Science VL - 322 UR - PM:19095911 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1382 T1 - Emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases A1 - Feldmann,H. A1 - Czub,M. A1 - Jones,S. A1 - Dick,D. A1 - Garbutt,M. A1 - Grolla,A. A1 - Artsob,H. Y1 - 2002/10// RP - IN FILE SP - 63 EP - 74 JF - Medical Microbiology and Immunology JA - Med.Microbiol.Immunol. VL - 191 N2 - In human history, numerous infectious diseases have emerged and re-emerged. Aside from many others, the so-called 'exotic' agents in particular are a threat to our public health systems due to limited experience in case management and lack of appropriate resources. Many of these agents are zoonotic in origin and transmitted from animals to man either directly or via vectors. The reservoirs are often infected subclinically or asymptomatically and the distribution of the diseases basically reflects the range and the population dynamics of their reservoir hosts. As examples, emergence/re-emergence is discussed here for diseases caused by filoviruses, hantaviruses, paramyxoviruses, flaviviruses and Yersinia pestis. In addition, bioterrorism is addressed as one factor which has now to be considered in infectious disease emergence/re-emergence. Preparedness for known and unknown infectious diseases will be a top priority for our public health systems in the beginning of the millennium UR - PM:12410344 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1454 T1 - Drugs for the control of parasitic diseases: current status and development in schistosomiasis A1 - Fenwick,A. A1 - Savioli,L. A1 - Engels,D. A1 - Robert,Bergquist N. A1 - Todd,M.H. Y1 - 2003/11// RP - IN FILE SP - 509 EP - 515 JF - Trends in Parasitology JA - Trends Parasitol. VL - 19 AD - Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, St. Mary's Campus, Imperial College, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK. a.fenwick@imperial.ac.uk UR - PM:14580962 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1377 T1 - Anthelmintic resistance in human helminths: Learning from the problems with worm control in livestock A1 - Geerts,S. A1 - Coles,G.C. A1 - Gryseels,B. Y1 - 1997/04// RP - IN FILE SP - 149 EP - 151 JF - Parasitology Today JA - Parasitol.Today VL - 13 N2 - During the past decade, the prevalence of anthelmintic resistance in some economically important helminths of sheep, goats and horses has increased dramatically. In some regions of Australia, South America and South Africa, anthelmintic resistance has become a serious threat to the survival of the sheep industry. Mass treatment programmes and exclusive reliance on anthelmintics for worm control in livestock are amongst the most important reasons for the development of anthelmintic resistance. In this article, Stanny Geerts, Gerald Coles and Bruno Gryseels draw the attention to a number of errors that have occurred in the control of helminths in livestock and that should be avoided in the control of worms in humans AD - Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nationalestraat 155, 2000 Antwerp I. Belgium. sgeerts@itg.be UR - PM:15275102 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1376 T1 - Drug resistance in human helminths: current situation and lessons from livestock A1 - Geerts,S. A1 - Gryseels,B. Y1 - 2000/04// RP - IN FILE SP - 207 EP - 222 JF - Clinical Microbiology Reviews JA - Clin.Microbiol.Rev. VL - 13 N2 - In this review the available reports on drug resistance in human helminths, particularly hookworms and schistosomes, are critically analyzed. The experiences with helminths of livestock are then reviewed, in particular the factors contributing to the development of anthelmintic resistance, the mechanisms and genetics of resistance to various anthelmintic classes, and the methods available for detection. These experiences appear to be worryingly similar and relevant to the potential development of drug resistance in human helminths. Recommendations to reduce its risks are suggested AD - Institute of Tropical Medicine, B-2000 Antwerp, Belgium. sgeerts@itg.be UR - PM:10755998 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1443 T1 - The emergence of HIV/AIDS in the Americas and beyond A1 - Gilbert,M.T. A1 - Rambaut,A. A1 - Wlasiuk,G. A1 - Spira,T.J. A1 - Pitchenik,A.E. A1 - Worobey,M. Y1 - 2007/11/20/ RP - IN FILE SP - 18566 EP - 18570 JA - Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.U.S.A VL - 104 N2 - HIV-1 group M subtype B was the first HIV discovered and is the predominant variant of AIDS virus in most countries outside of sub-Saharan Africa. However, the circumstances of its origin and emergence remain unresolved. Here we propose a geographic sequence and time line for the origin of subtype B and the emergence of pandemic HIV/AIDS out of Africa. Using HIV-1 gene sequences recovered from archival samples from some of the earliest known Haitian AIDS patients, we find that subtype B likely moved from Africa to Haiti in or around 1966 (1962-1970) and then spread there for some years before successfully dispersing elsewhere. A "pandemic" clade, encompassing the vast majority of non-Haitian subtype B infections in the United States and elsewhere around the world, subsequently emerged after a single migration of the virus out of Haiti in or around 1969 (1966-1972). Haiti appears to have the oldest HIV/AIDS epidemic outside sub-Saharan Africa and the most genetically diverse subtype B epidemic, which might present challenges for HIV-1 vaccine design and testing. The emergence of the pandemic variant of subtype B was an important turning point in the history of AIDS, but its spread was likely driven by ecological rather than evolutionary factors. Our results suggest that HIV-1 circulated cryptically in the United States for approximately 12 years before the recognition of AIDS in 1981 AD - Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA UR - PM:17978186 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1276 T1 - Etiology in human and animal ethnomedicine A1 - Green,E.C. Y1 - 1998/// RP - NOT IN FILE SP - 127 EP - 131 JF - Agriculture and Human Values VL - 15 N2 - It can be shown that considerable common ground exists between indigenous or traditional theories of contagious disease in Africa, and modern medicine, whether human or veterinary. Yet this is not recognized because of the generally low regard in which the medically trained - whether African or expatriate - hold African traditional medicine. This attitude seems to result from the assumption that African health beliefs are based on witchcraft and related ``supernatural'' thinking. I argue that this may not be so in the important domain of diseases biomedically classified as contagious; such diseases tend to be understood naturalistically. An accurate understanding of how Africans traditionally interpret contagious diseases of humans and livestock is the foundation for the design and implementation of more effective health programs. ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1435 T1 - Theileriosis--a model for vaccines against animal and human parasites A1 - Gryseels,B. A1 - Berkvens,D. Y1 - 1999/09// RP - IN FILE SP - 595 JF - Tropical Medicine and International Health JA - Trop.Med.Int.Health VL - 4 UR - PM:10540298 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1475 T1 - Mass treatment for worms is mistaken A1 - Gryseels,B. Y1 - 2006/// KW - TREATMENT RP - NOT IN FILE JF - Financial Times VL - Monday November 13 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1432 T1 - Using European travellers as an early alert to detect emerging pathogens in countries with limited laboratory resources A1 - Guerin,P.J. A1 - Grais,R.F. A1 - Rottingen,J.A. A1 - Valleron,A.J. Y1 - 2007/// RP - IN FILE SP - 8 JF - BMC Public Health VL - 7 N2 - BACKGROUND: The volume, extent and speed of travel have dramatically increased in the past decades, providing the potential for an infectious disease to spread through the transportation network. By collecting information on the suspected place of infection, existing surveillance systems in industrialized countries may provide timely information for areas of the world without adequate surveillance currently in place. We present the results of a case study using reported cases of Shigella dysenteriae serotype 1 (Sd1) in European travellers to detect "events" of Sd1, related to either epidemic cases or endemic cases in developing countries. METHODS: We identified papers from a Medline search for reported events of Sd1 from 1940 to 2002. We requested data on shigella infections reported to the responsible surveillance entities in 17 European countries. Reports of Sd1 from the published literature were then compared with Sd1 notified cases among European travellers from 1990 to 2002. RESULTS: Prior to a large epidemic in 1999-2000, no cases of Sd1 had been identified in West Africa. However, if travellers had been used as an early warning, Sd1 could have been identified in this region as earlier as 1992. CONCLUSION: This project demonstrates that tracking diseases in European travellers could be used to detect emerging disease in developing countries. This approach should be further tested with a view to the continuous improvement of national health surveillance systems and existing European networks, and may play a significant role in aiding the international public health community to improve infectious disease control AD - Division of Infectious Disease Control, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway. philippe.guerin@epicentre.msf.org UR - PM:17239228 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1145 T1 - Identifying Reservoirs of Infection: A Conceptual and Practical Challenge A1 - Haydon,D.T. A1 - Cleaveland,S. A1 - Taylor,L.H. A1 - Laurenson,M.K. Y1 - 2002/// RP - IN FILE SP - 1468 EP - 1473 JF - Emerging Infectious Diseases JA - Emerg.Infect.Dis. VL - 8 N2 - Many infectious agents, especially those that cause emerging diseases, infect more than one host species. Managing reservoirs of multihost pathogens often plays a crucial role in effective disease control. However, reservoirs remain variously and loosely defined. We propose that reservoirs can only be understood with reference to defined target populations. Therefore, we define a reservoir as one or more epidemiologically connected populations or environments in which the pathogen can be permanently maintained and from which infection is transmitted to the defined target population. Existence of a reservoir is confirmed when infection within the target population cannot be sustained after all transmission between target and nontarget populations has been eliminated. When disease can be controlled solely by interventions within target populations, little knowledge of potentially complex reservoir infection dynamics is necessary for effective control. We discuss the practical value of different approaches that may be used to identify reservoirs in the field. ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1264 T1 - Global trends in emerging infectious diseases A1 - Jones,K.E. A1 - Patel,N.G. A1 - Levy,M.A. A1 - Storeygard,A. A1 - Balk,D. A1 - Gittleman,J.L. A1 - Daszak,P. Y1 - 2008/02/21/ RP - IN FILE SP - 990 EP - 993 JF - Nature VL - 451 N2 - Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) are a significant burden on global economies and public health. Their emergence is thought to be driven largely by socio-economic, environmental and ecological factors, but no comparative study has explicitly analysed these linkages to understand global temporal and spatial patterns of EIDs. Here we analyse a database of 335 EID 'events' (origins of EIDs) between 1940 and 2004, and demonstrate non-random global patterns. EID events have risen significantly over time after controlling for reporting bias, with their peak incidence (in the 1980s) concomitant with the HIV pandemic. EID events are dominated by zoonoses (60.3% of EIDs): the majority of these (71.8%) originate in wildlife (for example, severe acute respiratory virus, Ebola virus), and are increasing significantly over time. We find that 54.3% of EID events are caused by bacteria or rickettsia, reflecting a large number of drug-resistant microbes in our database. Our results confirm that EID origins are significantly correlated with socio-economic, environmental and ecological factors, and provide a basis for identifying regions where new EIDs are most likely to originate (emerging disease 'hotspots'). They also reveal a substantial risk of wildlife zoonotic and vector-borne EIDs originating at lower latitudes where reporting effort is low. We conclude that global resources to counter disease emergence are poorly allocated, with the majority of the scientific and surveillance effort focused on countries from where the next important EID is least likely to originate AD - Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regents Park, London NW1 4RY, UK UR - PM:18288193 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1436 T1 - Confronting zoonoses, linking human and veterinary medicine A1 - Kahn,L.H. Y1 - 2006/04// RP - IN FILE SP - 556 EP - 561 JF - Emerging Infectious Diseases JA - Emerg.Infect.Dis. VL - 12 N2 - Many of the emerging infectious diseases, including those caused by bioterrorist agents, are zoonoses. Since zoonoses can infect both animals and humans, the medical and veterinary communities should work closely together in clinical, public health, and research settings. In the clinical setting, input from both professions would improve assessments of the risk-benefit ratios of pet ownership, particularly for pet owners who are immunocompromised. In public health, human and animal disease surveillance systems are important in tracking and controlling zoonoses such as avian influenza virus, West Nile virus, and foodborne pathogens. Comparative medicine is the study of disease processes across species, including humans. Physician and veterinarian comparative medicine research teams should be promoted and encouraged to study zoonotic agent-host interactions. These efforts would increase our understanding of how zoonoses expand their host range and would, ultimately, improve prevention and control strategies AD - Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08542, USA. lkahn@princeton.edu UR - PM:16704801 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1437 T1 - Converging issues in veterinary and public health A1 - King,L. A1 - Khabbaz,R. Y1 - 2003/04// RP - IN FILE SP - 510 EP - 511 JF - Emerging Infectious Diseases JA - Emerg.Infect.Dis. VL - 9 AD - Michigan State University College of Veterinary Medicine, East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1314, USA. kinglonn@cvm.msu.edu UR - PM:12702239 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1448 T1 - Emerging infectious diseases at the beginning of the 21st century A1 - Lashley,F.R. Y1 - 2006/// RP - IN FILE SP - 2 JA - Online.J Issues Nurs. VL - 11 N2 - The emergence and re-emergence of infectious diseases involves many interrelated factors. Global interconnectedness continues to increase with international travel and trade; economic, political, and cultural interactions; and human-to-human and animal-to-human interactions. These interactions include the accidental and deliberate sharing of microbial agents and antimicrobial resistance and allow the emergence of new and unrecognized microbial disease agents. As the 21st century begins, already new agents have been identified, and new outbreaks have occurred. Solutions to limiting the spread of emerging infectious diseases will require cooperative efforts among many disciplines and entities worldwide. This article defines emerging infectious diseases, summarizes historical background, and discusses factors that contribute to emergence. Seven agents that have made a significant appearance, particularly in the 21st century, are reviewed, including: Ebola and Marburg hemorrhagic fevers, human monkeypox, bovine spongiform encephalopathy, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), West Nile virus, and avian influenza. The article provides for each agent a brief historical background, case descriptions, and health care implications AD - College of Nursing at Rutgers, New Jersey, USA. flashley@rutgers.edu UR - PM:16629503 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1319 T1 - Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., verocytotoxic Escherichia coli, and antibiotic resistance in indicator organisms in wild cervids A1 - Lillehaug,A. A1 - Bergsjo,B. A1 - Schau,J. A1 - Bruheim,T. A1 - Vikoren,T. A1 - Handeland,K. Y1 - 2005/// RP - IN FILE SP - 23 EP - 32 JA - Acta Vet Scand. VL - 46 N2 - Faecal samples were collected, as part of the National Health Surveillance Program for Cervids (HOP) in Norway, from wild red deer, roe deer, moose and reindeer during ordinary hunting seasons from 2001 to 2003. Samples from a total of 618 animals were examined for verocytotoxic E. coli (VTEC); 611 animals for Salmonella and 324 animals for Campylobacter. A total of 50 samples were cultivated from each cervid species in order to isolate the indicator bacterial species E. coli and Enterococcus faecalis / E. faecium for antibiotic resistance pattern studies. Salmonella and the potentially human pathogenic verocytotoxic E. coli were not isolated, while Campylobacter jejuni jejuni was found in one roe deer sample only. Antibiotic resistance was found in 13 (7.3%) of the 179 E. coli isolates tested, eight of these being resistant against one type of antibiotic only. The proportion of resistant E. coli isolates was higher in wild reindeer (24%) than in the other cervids (2.2%). E. faecalis or E. faecium were isolated from 19 of the samples, none of these being reindeer. All the strains isolated were resistant against one (84%) or more (16%) antibiotics. A total of 14 E. faecalis-strains were resistant to virginiamycin only. The results indicate that the cervid species studied do not constitute an important infectious reservoir for either the human pathogens or the antibiotic resistant microorganisms included in the study AD - Section for Wildlife Diseases, National Veterinary Institute, Trondheim, Norway UR - PM:16108210 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1389 T1 - Implications of the one-medicine concept for healthcare provision A1 - Mathias,E. Y1 - 1998/// RP - NOT IN FILE SP - 145 EP - 151 JF - Agriculture and Human Values VL - 15  N2 - Human and veterinary medicine have many commonalities. The split into distinct disciplines occurred at different times in different places. In Europe, the establishment of the first veterinary universities towards the end of the 18th century was triggered by ravaging rinderpest epidemics and the increasing importance of livestock for draft, food supply, and war fare. Given this background, would it make sense to combine human, animal, traditional and modern medicine in healthcare provision, especially in less developed countries? Such a ``one-medicine'' approach could enhance biomedical progress, improve the outreach of medical and veterinary services especially in remote areas, offer greater choices to patients, and make healthcare more culturally appropriate. On the other hand, it would require generalists rather than specialists and rare diseases may go unrecognized. The commonalities of human and veterinary medicine and the financial constraints many governments are presently facing are arguments in favor of a ``one-medicine'' approach, while status thinking, education systems, administrative structures, and legislations hinder its implementation. There are no instant recommendations for the application of one medicine but governments and development professionals need to generate fine-tuned, location-specific healthcare solutions. Advocacy, changes in education and training, the creation of institutional linkages, and the removal of legal barriers could help overcome obstacles. ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1390 T1 - Intersectoral healthcare delivery A1 - McCorkle,C.M. A1 - Green,E.C. Y1 - 1998/// RP - NOT IN FILE SP - 105 EP - 114 JF - Agriculture and Human Values VL - 15 N2 - Within a given culture - whether industrialized or more tradition oriented -essentially the same fundamental medical theories, practices, and pharmacopoeia tend to be applied to human and non-human sickness and patients. In modern industrialized societies, however, healthcare services are sharply divided between human and veterinary medicine. There is likewise a sharp division between practitioners in these two health sectors: medical doctors and veterinarians. Yet in non-Western, traditional or indigenous medical systems, the same practitioners often treat both humans and animals. There is a growing body of literature that attests to the efficacy of traditional health practices and herbal medicines for the prevention and treatment of both human and livestock ailments. The authors argue for an intersectoral approach to human and veterinary health services in poor countries, especially those targeted to rural people with LIMITED access to modern health services. Extension of conventional medical and veterinary services is particularly difficult and costly in Third World countries where the necessary infrastructure (roads, clinics, labs, cold chains, etc.) is poorly developed and where much of the populace and their livestock reside in remote, rural areas, or where people may be nomadic or transhumant. Consideration should therefore be given to the joint delivery of human and livestock healthcare and related services, as well as to linking informal, ethnoveterinary practices and practitioners with more formalized systems of veterinary AND medical practice. Several advantages of such an approach are identified and explored. ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1388 T1 - Parallels and potentials in animal and human ethnomedical technique A1 - McCorkle,C.M. A1 - Martin,M. Y1 - 1998/// RP - NOT IN FILE SP - 139 EP - 144 JF - Agriculture and Human Values VL - 15 N2 - In all cultures, ethnomedical practices are largely the same for animals and people, whether in mode of administration of materia medica, in the materials themselves, or in surgical, mechanical, behavioral, medico-religious, and other realms. Below, parallels between veterinary and human ethnomedical techniques are outlined. Taken together, they suggest that a number of benefits could be gained by closer collaboration between veterinary and human medicine in the delivery of basic healthcare information and services. ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1379 T1 - Multiple antibiotic resistance gene transfer from animal to human enterococci in the digestive tract of gnotobiotic mice A1 - Moubareck,C. A1 - Bourgeois,N. A1 - Courvalin,P. A1 - Doucet-Populaire,F. Y1 - 2003/09// RP - IN FILE SP - 2993 EP - 2996 JA - Antimicrob.Agents Chemother. VL - 47 N2 - It has been proposed that food animals represent the source of glycopeptide resistance genes present in enterococci from humans. We demonstrated the transfer of vanA and of other resistance genes from porcine to human Enterococcus faecium at high frequency in the digestive tract of gnotobiotic mice. Tylosin in the drinking water favored colonization by transconjugants AD - Laboratoire de Microbiologie, UFR de Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques, Universite Rene Descartes, 75270 Paris Cedex 06, France UR - PM:12937011 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1455 T1 - Malaria in sub-Saharan Africa A1 - Muller,O. A1 - Ye,M. A1 - Louis,V.R. A1 - Sie,A. Y1 - 2009/01/10/ RP - IN FILE SP - 122 JA - Lancet VL - 373 UR - PM:19135609 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1342 T1 - Emerging zoonoses: the challenge for public health and biodefense A1 - Murphy,F.A. Y1 - 2008/09/15/ RP - NOT IN FILE SP - 216 EP - 223 JF - Preventive Veterinary Medicine JA - Prev.Vet.Med. J1 - Prev Vet Med J2 - Prev.Vet Med VL - 86 N2 - The concept of new and emerging diseases has captured the public interest and has revitalized the public health infectious disease research community. This interest has also resulted in competition for funding and turf wars between animal health and public health scientists and public officials and, in some cases, has delayed and hindered progress toward effective prevention, control and biodefense. There is a dynamic list of outbreaks causing substantial morbidity and mortality in humans and often in the reservoir animal species. Some agents have the potential to grow into major epidemics. There are many determinants that influence the emergence of diseases of concern that require the use of current understanding of the nature of agent persistence and spread. Additional factors that are global must be added to plans for prevention and control. To this complex mix has been added the potential for accidental or malicious release of agents. The nature of emerging infectious agents and their impact is largely unpredictable. Models that strive to predict the dynamics of agents may be useful but can also blind us to increasing disease risks if it does not match a specific model. Field investigations of early events will be critical and should drive prevention and control actions. Many disease agents have developed strategies to overcome extremes of reservoir qualities like population size and density. Every infectious agent spreads easier when its hosts are closer together. Zoonoses must be dealt with at the interface of human and animal health by all available information. Lessons learned from the emergence of and response to agents like West Nile virus, H5N1 avian influenza, SARS and bovine spongiform encephalopathy, the cause of new-variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans, must be used to create better plans for response and meet the challenge for public health and biodefense ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1473 T1 - Prevalence and intensity of Onchocerca volvulus infection and efficacy of ivermectin in endemic communities in Ghana: a two-phase epidemiological study A1 - Osei-Atweneboana,M.Y. A1 - Eng,J.K. A1 - Boakye,D.A. A1 - Gyapong,J.O. A1 - Prichard,R.K. Y1 - 2007/06/16/ RP - IN FILE SP - 2021 EP - 2029 JA - Lancet VL - 369 N2 - BACKGROUND: Ivermectin has been used for onchocerciasis control since 1987. Because of the long-term use of this drug and the development of resistance in other nematodes, we have assessed Onchocerca volvulus burdens, effectiveness of ivermectin as a microfilaricide, and its effect on adult female worm reproduction. METHODS: For the first phase of the study, 2501 individuals in Ghana, from 19 endemic communities who had received six to 18 annual rounds of ivermectin and one ivermectin naive community, were assessed for microfilarial loads 7 days before the 2004 yearly ivermectin treatment, by means of skin snips, and 30 days after treatment to assess the ivermectin microfilaricidal action. For the second phase, skin snips were taken from 342 individuals from ten communities, who were microfilaria positive at pretreatment assessment, on days 90 and 180 after treatment, to identify the effects of ivermectin on female worm fertility, assessed by microfilaria repopulation. FINDINGS: 487 (19%) of the 2501 participants were microfilaria positive. The microfilaria prevalence and community microfilarial load in treated communities ranged from 2.2% to 51.8%, and 0.06 microfilariae per snip to 2.85 microfilariae per snip, respectively. Despite treatment, the prevalence rate doubled between 2000 and 2005 in two communities. Microfilaria assessment 30 days after ivermectin treatment showed 100% clearance of microfilaria in more than 99% of people. At day 90 after treatment, four of ten communities had significant microfilaria repopulation, from 7.1% to 21.1% of pretreatment counts, rising to 53.9% by day 180. INTERPRETATION: Ivermectin remains a potent microfilaricide. However, our results suggest that resistant adult parasite populations, which are not responding as expected to ivermectin, are emerging. A high rate of repopulation of skin with microfilariae will allow parasite transmission, possibly with ivermectin-resistant O volvulus, which could eventually lead to recrudescence of the disease AD - Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, Canada UR - PM:17574093 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1265 T1 - Reservoir interactions and disease emergence A1 - Reluga,T. A1 - Meza,R. A1 - Walton,D.B. A1 - Galvani,A.P. Y1 - 2007/11// RP - IN FILE SP - 400 EP - 408 JA - Theor.Popul.Biol. VL - 72 N2 - Animal populations act as reservoirs for emerging diseases. In order for transmission to be self-sustaining, a pathogen must have a basic reproduction number R0>1. Following a founding transmission event from an animal reservoir to humans, a pathogen has not yet adapted to its new environment and is likely to have an R0<1. However, subsequent evolution may rescue the pathogen from extinction in its new host. Recent applications of branching process theory investigate how the emergence of a novel pathogen is influenced by the number and rates of intermediate evolutionary steps. In addition, repeated contacts between human and reservoir populations may promote pathogen emergence. This article extends a stepping-stone model of pathogen evolution to include reservoir interactions. We demonstrate that the probability of a founding event culminating in an emerged pathogen can be significantly influenced by ongoing reservoir interactions. While infrequent reservoir interactions do not change the probability of disease emergence, moderately frequent interactions can promote emergence by facilitating adaptation to humans. Frequent reservoir interactions promote emergence even with minimal adaptation to humans. Thus, these results warn against perpetuated interaction between humans and animal reservoirs, as occurs when there are ecological or environmental changes that bring humans into more frequent contact with animal reservoirs AD - Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA. timothy@reluga.org UR - PM:17719617 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1446 T1 - Prevention and control of emerging infections: a challenge for the 3rd millennium A1 - Rezza,G. Y1 - 2007/07// RP - IN FILE SP - 358 EP - 361 JA - New Microbiol. VL - 30 N2 - In the last 30 years, several emerging infections due to novel viruses have been identified, from haemorrhagic fever viruses to HIV, from the SARS-Coronavirus to Avian influenza viruses. Ecological and genetic changes are important determinants of the emergence of new viral infections, driving to an increase of R0 (the basic reproductive number) through increasing the probability of transmission. The current H5N1 epidemic may be considered a prepandemic paradigm that needs thorough investigation AD - Epidemiology Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanita, Roma, Italy. giovanni.rezza@iss.it UR - PM:17802926 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1378 T1 - The influence of veterinary epidemiology on public health: past, present and future A1 - Sargeant,J.M. Y1 - 2008/09/15/ RP - IN FILE SP - 250 EP - 259 JF - Preventive Veterinary Medicine JA - Prev.Vet.Med. J1 - Prev Vet Med J2 - Prev.Vet Med VL - 86 N2 - This paper summarizes a presentation given at the Association for Veterinary Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine sponsored Calvin W. Schwabe symposium honouring the lifetime achievements of Dr. S. Wayne Martin. While the concepts were amalgamated from many sources, the examples were primarily selected to represent areas where Wayne Martin has been an active researcher and educator. The purpose was to describe the impact of veterinary epidemiology on public health in the past and present and to consider the future of veterinary epidemiology in public health. Veterinary medicine contributes to public health not only in the area of zoonotic disease prevention and control, but also through contributions to animal health, comparative and basic medical research, and population and environmental health. Veterinary epidemiologists contribute to both research in public health and the practice of public health through a wide range of methodological approaches and via the networks of trained epidemiologists working in the area. The contributions of veterinary epidemiologists have resulted in significant improvements in human health. There are considerable challenges and opportunities facing veterinary epidemiologists working in the public health area in the future. Meeting these needs will require continued integration between veterinary and human public health research and practice, and enhanced communication of both content and context expertise AD - Department of Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Health Sciences Centre 2C15, McMaster University, 1200 Main St. West, Hamilton, ON, Canada L8N 3Z5. sargeaj@mcmaster.ca UR - PM:18375003 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1320 T1 - Patterns of antimicrobial resistance observed in Escherichia coli isolates obtained from domestic- and wild-animal fecal samples, human septage, and surface water A1 - Sayah,R.S. A1 - Kaneene,J.B. A1 - Johnson,Y. A1 - Miller,R. Y1 - 2005/03// RP - IN FILE SP - 1394 EP - 1404 JA - Appl.Environ.Microbiol. VL - 71 N2 - A repeated cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the patterns of antimicrobial resistance in 1,286 Escherichia coli strains isolated from human septage, wildlife, domestic animals, farm environments, and surface water in the Red Cedar watershed in Michigan. Isolation and identification of E. coli were done by using enrichment media, selective media, and biochemical tests. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing by the disk diffusion method was conducted for neomycin, gentamicin, streptomycin, chloramphenicol, ofloxacin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, tetracycline, ampicillin, nalidixic acid, nitrofurantoin, cephalothin, and sulfisoxazole. Resistance to at least one antimicrobial agent was demonstrated in isolates from livestock, companion animals, human septage, wildlife, and surface water. In general, E. coli isolates from domestic species showed resistance to the largest number of antimicrobial agents compared to isolates from human septage, wildlife, and surface water. The agents to which resistance was demonstrated most frequently were tetracycline, cephalothin, sulfisoxazole, and streptomycin. There were similarities in the patterns of resistance in fecal samples and farm environment samples by animal, and the levels of cephalothin-resistant isolates were higher in farm environment samples than in fecal samples. Multidrug resistance was seen in a variety of sources, and the highest levels of multidrug-resistant E. coli were observed for swine fecal samples. The fact that water sample isolates were resistant only to cephalothin may suggest that the resistance patterns for farm environment samples may be more representative of the risk of contamination of surface waters with antimicrobial agent-resistant bacteria AD - Population Medicine Center, A-109 Veterinary Medical Center, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1314, USA UR - PM:15746342 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1141 T1 - Human and animal vaccination delivery to remote nomadic families, Chad A1 - Schelling,E. A1 - Bechir,M. A1 - Ahmed,M.A. A1 - Wyss,K. A1 - Randolph,T.F. A1 - Zinsstag,J. Y1 - 2007/// RP - IN FILE SP - 373 EP - 379 JF - Emerging Infectious Diseases JA - Emerg.Infect.Dis. VL - 13  N2 - Vaccination services for people and livestock often fail to achieve sufficient coverages in Africa's remote rural settings because of financial, logistic, and service delivery constraints. In Chad from 2000 through 2005, we demonstrated the feasibility of combining vaccination programs for nomadic pastoralists and their livestock. Sharing of transport logistics and equipment between physicians and veterinarians reduced total costs. Joint delivery of human and animal health services is adapted to and highly valued by hard-to-reach pastoralists. In intervention zones, for the first time ~10% of nomadic children (>1-11 months of age) were fully immunized annually and more children and women were vaccinated per day during joint vaccination rounds than during vaccination of persons only and not their livestock (130 vs. 100, p<0.001). By optimizing use of limited logistical and human resources, public health and veterinary services both become more effective, especially at the district level. ER - TY - BOOK ID - 1286 T1 - Veterinary medicine and human health A1 - Schwabe,C.W. Y1 - 1984/// RP - NOT IN FILE VL - 3rd CY - Baltimore PB - Williams & Wilkins ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1398 T1 - Integrated delivery of primary health care for humans and animals A1 - Schwabe,C.W. Y1 - 1998/// N1 - in file RP - NOT IN FILE SP - 121 EP - 125 JF - Agriculture and Human Values VL - 15 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1244 T1 - Where health care has no access: the nomadic populations of sub-Saharan Africa A1 - Sheik-Mohamed,A. A1 - Velema,J.P. Y1 - 1999/10// RP - IN FILE SP - 695 EP - 707 JF - Tropical Medicine and International Health JA - Trop.Med.Int.Health VL - 4 N2 - Nomadic and seminomadic pastoralists make optimal use of scarce water and pasture in the arid regions south of the Sahara desert, spreading from Mauretania in the west to Somalia in East Africa. We attempted to summarize the fragmentary evidence from the literature on the health status of these populations and to assess the best ways to provide them with modern health care. Infant mortality is higher among nomadic than among neighbouring settled populations, but childhood malnutrition is less frequent. Nomads often avoid exposure to infectious agents by moving away from epidemics such as measles. Trachoma is highly prevalent due to flies attracted by cattle. The high prevalence of tuberculosis is ascribed to the presence of cattle, crowded sleeping quarters and lack of health care; treatment compliance is generally poor. Guinea worm disease is common due to unsafe water sources. Helminth infections are relatively rare as people leave their waste behind when they move. Malaria is usually epidemic, leading to high mortality. Sexually transmitted diseases spread easily due to lack of treatment. Leishmaniasis and onchocerciasis are encountered; brucellosis occurs but most often goes undetected. Drought forces nomads to concentrate near water sources or even into relief camps, with often disastrous consequences for their health. Existing health care systems are in the hands of settled populations and rarely have access to nomads due to cultural, political and economic obstacles. A primary health care system based on nomadic community health workers is outlined and an example of a successful tuberculosis control project is described. Nomadic populations are open to modern health care on the condition that this is not an instrument to control them but something they can control themselves AD - Department of Public Health, Erasmus University, Rotterdam and The Netherlands Institute for Health Sciences UR - PM:10583904 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1438 T1 - Chikungunya: a paradigm of emergence and globalization of vector-borne diseases A1 - Simon,F. A1 - Savini,H. A1 - Parola,P. Y1 - 2008/11// RP - IN FILE SP - 1323 EP - 43, ix JA - Med Clin North Am. VL - 92 N2 - Chikungunya (CHIK) fever is a tropical arboviral disease responsible for acute polyarthritis which can last for weeks to months. In 2007, the chikungunya virus (CHIKV) reached Europe. Since the beginning of this outbreak, several million cases of chikungunya virus disease have occurred in autochthonous populations and in travelers who were diagnosed after they returned home from epidemic areas. CHIKV, usually transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, has now been repeatedly associated with a new vector, Aedes albopictus (the "Asian tiger mosquito"), which has spread into tropical areas previously occupied predominantly by A aegypti, and has dispersed worldwide. Because CHIKV could spread throughout the world, all physicians should be prepared to encounter this arboviral infection, which represents a paradigm for emerging arboviral infections. In this article, the authors review different aspects of this reemerging and fascinating disease, focusing on clinical aspects and lessons from the recent large-scale outbreaks AD - Service de Pathologies Infectieuses et Tropicales, Hospital d'Instruction des Armees Laveran, BP 50, 13998 Marseille Armees, France. simon-f@wanadoo.fr UR - PM:19061754 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1447 T1 - Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS): a year in review A1 - Skowronski,D.M. A1 - Astell,C. A1 - Brunham,R.C. A1 - Low,D.E. A1 - Petric,M. A1 - Roper,R.L. A1 - Talbot,P.J. A1 - Tam,T. A1 - Babiuk,L. Y1 - 2005/// RP - IN FILE SP - 357 EP - 381 JA - Annu.Rev.Med VL - 56 N2 - Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) emerged from China as an untreatable and rapidly spreading respiratory illness of unknown etiology. Following point source exposure in February 2003, more than a dozen guests infected at a Hong Kong hotel seeded multi-country outbreaks that persisted through the spring of 2003. The World Health Organization responded by invoking traditional public health measures and advanced technologies to control the illness and contain the cause. A novel coronavirus was implicated and its entire genome was sequenced by mid-April 2003. The urgency of responding to this threat focused scientific endeavor and stimulated global collaboration. Through real-time application of accumulating knowledge, the world proved capable of arresting the first pandemic threat of the twenty-first century, despite early respiratory-borne spread and global susceptibility. This review synthesizes lessons learned from this remarkable achievement. These lessons can be applied to re-emergence of SARS or to the next pandemic threat to arise AD - University of British Columbia Center for Disease Control, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V5Z 4R4. danuta.skowronski@bccdc.ca UR - PM:15660517 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1237 T1 - Concepts for risk-based surveillance in the field of veterinary medicine and veterinary public health: review of current approaches A1 - Stark,K.D. A1 - Regula,G. A1 - Hernandez,J. A1 - Knopf,L. A1 - Fuchs,K. A1 - Morris,R.S. A1 - Davies,P. Y1 - 2006/// RP - NOT IN FILE SP - 20 JA - BMC.Health Serv.Res. VL - 6 N2 - BACKGROUND: Emerging animal and zoonotic diseases and increasing international trade have resulted in an increased demand for veterinary surveillance systems. However, human and financial resources available to support government veterinary services are becoming more and more limited in many countries world-wide. Intuitively, issues that present higher risks merit higher priority for surveillance resources as investments will yield higher benefit-cost ratios. The rapid rate of acceptance of this core concept of risk-based surveillance has outpaced the development of its theoretical and practical bases. DISCUSSION: The principal objectives of risk-based veterinary surveillance are to identify surveillance needs to protect the health of livestock and consumers, to set priorities, and to allocate resources effectively and efficiently. An important goal is to achieve a higher benefit-cost ratio with existing or reduced resources. We propose to define risk-based surveillance systems as those that apply risk assessment methods in different steps of traditional surveillance design for early detection and management of diseases or hazards. In risk-based designs, public health, economic and trade consequences of diseases play an important role in selection of diseases or hazards. Furthermore, certain strata of the population of interest have a higher probability to be sampled for detection of diseases or hazards. Evaluation of risk-based surveillance systems shall prove that the efficacy of risk-based systems is equal or higher than traditional systems; however, the efficiency (benefit-cost ratio) shall be higher in risk-based surveillance systems. SUMMARY: Risk-based surveillance considerations are useful to support both strategic and operational decision making. This article highlights applications of risk-based surveillance systems in the veterinary field including food safety. Examples are provided for risk-based hazard selection, risk-based selection of sampling strata as well as sample size calculation based on risk considerations AD - Federal Veterinary Office, CH-3003 Bern, Switzerland. katharina.staerk@bvet.admin.ch UR - PM:16507106 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1341 T1 - Veterinary public health: past success, new opportunities A1 - Steele,J.H. Y1 - 2008/09/15/ RP - NOT IN FILE SP - 224 EP - 243 JF - Preventive Veterinary Medicine JA - Prev.Vet.Med. J1 - Prev Vet Med J2 - Prev.Vet Med VL - 86 N2 - Animal diseases are known to be the origin of many human diseases, and there are many examples from ancient civilizations of plagues that arose from animals, domesticated and wild. Records of attempts to control zoonoses are almost as old. The early focus on food-borne illness evolved into veterinary medicine's support of public health efforts. Key historical events, disease outbreaks, and individuals responsible for their control are reviewed and serve as a foundation for understanding the current and future efforts in veterinary public health. Animal medicine and veterinary public health have been intertwined since humans first began ministrations to their families and animals. In the United States, the veterinary medical profession has effectively eliminated those major problems of animal health that had serious public health ramifications. These lessons and experiences can serve as a model for other countries. Our past must also be a reminder that the battle for human and animal health is ongoing. New agents emerge to threaten human and animal populations. With knowledge of the past, coupled with new technologies and techniques, we must be vigilant and carry on ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1144 T1 - Risk factors for human disease emergence A1 - Taylor,L.H. A1 - Latham,S.M. A1 - Woolhouse,M.E.J. Y1 - 2001/// RP - IN FILE SP - 983 EP - 989 JF - Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences JA - Philos.Trans.R.Soc.Lond.B.Biol.Sci. VL - 356 N2 - A comprehensive literature review identifies 1415 species of infectious organism known to be pathogenic to humans, including 217 viruses and prions, 538 bacteria and rickettsia, 307 fungi, 66 protozoa and 287 helminths. Out of these, 868 (61%) are zoonotic, that is, they can be transmitted between humans and animals, and 175 pathogenic species are associated with diseases considered to be 'emerging'. We test the hypothesis that zoonotic pathogens are more likely to be associated with emerging diseases than non-emerging ones. Out of the emerging pathogens, 132 (75%) are zoonotic, and overall, zoonotic pathogens are twice as likely to be associated with emerging diseases than non-zoonotic pathogens. However, the result varies among taxa, with protozoa and viruses particularly likely to emerge, and helminths particularly unlikely to do so, irrespective of their zoonotic status. No association between transmission route and emergence was found. This study represents the first quantitative analysis identifying risk factors for human disease emergence. ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1399 T1 - Does risk to humans justify high cost of fighting bovine TB? A1 - Torgerson,P. A1 - Torgerson,D. Y1 - 2008/// RP - NOT IN FILE SP - 1029 EP - 1029 JF - Nature VL - 455 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1442 T1 - Resurgence of chikungunya A1 - Townson,H. A1 - Nathan,M.B. Y1 - 2008/04// RP - IN FILE SP - 308 EP - 309 JF - Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene JA - Trans.Roy.Soc.Trop.Med.Hyg. VL - 102 N2 - Chikungunya, an arboviral disease transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes, has recently increased dramatically in incidence and geographic extent. Large outbreaks have affected islands of the Indian Ocean, India and other parts of South and Southeast Asia, Africa and most recently Italy. International travellers have disseminated new strains of the virus, some into regions from which chikungunya has hitherto been absent. In parallel, over the past 30 years international trade has resulted in the spread of A. albopictus from its original range in Asia, to all continents but Antarctica, thereby extending the geographic area over which transmission can occur AD - Vector Group, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK. htownson@liverpool.ac.uk UR - PM:18178232 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1429 T1 - Bovine tuberculosis as a model for human tuberculosis: advantages over small animal models A1 - Van Rhijn,I A1 - Godfroid,J. A1 - Michel,A. A1 - Rutten,V. Y1 - 2008/06// RP - IN FILE SP - 711 EP - 715 JF - Microbes and Infection JA - Microb.Infect. VL - 10 N2 - For the development of vaccines and treatments against tuberculosis, animal models are needed. In this review, the pathogenesis and immune responses during human and bovine tuberculosis will be compared. Special attention will be paid to latency, because this feature has recently become the basis of specialized vaccines against latency antigens AD - Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 1, Utrecht, The Netherlands. i.vanrhijn@uu.nl UR - PM:18538612 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1444 T1 - Adaptation of HIV-1 to its human host A1 - Wain,L.V. A1 - Bailes,E. A1 - Bibollet-Ruche,F. A1 - Decker,J.M. A1 - Keele,B.F. A1 - Van Heuverswyn,F. A1 - Li,Y. A1 - Takehisa,J. A1 - Ngole,E.M. A1 - Shaw,G.M. A1 - Peeters,M. A1 - Hahn,B.H. A1 - Sharp,P.M. Y1 - 2007/08// RP - IN FILE SP - 1853 EP - 1860 JA - Mol.Biol.Evol. VL - 24 N2 - Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) originated from three independent cross-species transmissions of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIVcpzPtt) infecting chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) in west central Africa, giving rise to pandemic (group M) and non-pandemic (groups N and O) clades of HIV-1. To identify host-specific adaptations in HIV-1 we compared the inferred ancestral sequences of HIV-1 groups M, N and O to 12 full length genome sequences of SIVcpzPtt and four of the outlying but closely related SIVcpzPts (from P. t. schweinfurthii). This analysis revealed a single site that was completely conserved among SIVcpzPtt strains but different (due to the same change) in all three groups of HIV-1. This site, Gag-30, lies within p17, the gag-encoded matrix protein. It is Met in SIVcpzPtt, underwent a conservative replacement by Leu in one lineage of SIVcpzPts but changed radically to Arg on all three lineages leading to HIV-1. During subsequent diversification this site has been conserved as a basic residue (Arg or Lys) in most lineages of HIV-1. Retrospective analysis revealed that Gag-30 had reverted to Met in a previous experiment in which HIV-1 was passaged through chimpanzees. To examine whether this substitution conferred a species specific growth advantage, we used site-directed mutagenesis to generate variants of these chimpanzee-adapted HIV-1 strains with Lys at Gag-30, and tested their replication in both human and chimpanzee CD4+ T lymphocytes. Remarkably, viruses encoding Met replicated to higher titers than viruses encoding Lys in chimpanzee T cells, but the opposite was found in human T cells. Taken together, these observations provide compelling evidence for host-specific adaptation during the emergence of HIV-1 and identify the viral matrix protein as a modulator of viral fitness following transmission to the new human host AD - Institute of Genetics, University of Nottingham, Queens Medical Centre, Nottingham, UK UR - PM:17545188 ER - TY - BOOK ID - 1396 T1 - Critically important antibacterial agents for human medicine for risk management strategies of non-human use A1 - WHO Y1 - 2005/// RP - IN FILE PB - Report of a WHO working group consultation, 15-18 February, Canberra, Australia   ER - TY - BOOK ID - 1266 T1 - The control of neglected zoonotic diseases: a route to poverty alleviation. Report of a joint WHO/DFID-AHP meeting with the participation of FAO and OIE, Geneva, 20 and 21 September 2005 A1 - WHO Y1 - 2006/// RP - IN FILE CY - Geneva PB - World Health Organization ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1287 T1 - Livestock diseases and human health A1 - Zinsstag,J. A1 - Weiss,M.G. Y1 - 2001/10/19/ RP - IN FILE SP - 477 JF - Science VL - 294 UR - PM:11641468 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1288 T1 - Potential of cooperation between human and animal health to strengthen health systems A1 - Zinsstag,J. A1 - Schelling,E. A1 - Wyss,K. A1 - Mahamat,M.B. Y1 - 2005/12/17/ RP - IN FILE SP - 2142 EP - 2145 JA - Lancet VL - 366 AD - Department of Public Health and Epidemiology, Swiss Tropical Institute, Basel, Switzerland. jakob.zinsstag@unibas.ch UR - PM:16360795 ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1142 T1 - Human Benefits of Animal Interventions for Zoonosis Control A1 - Zinsstag,J. A1 - Schelling,E. A1 - Roth,F. A1 - Bonfoh,B. A1 - de Savigny,D. A1 - Tanner,M. Y1 - 2007/// RP - IN FILE SP - 527 EP - 531 JF - Emerging Infectious Diseases JA - Emerg.Infect.Dis. VL - 13  ER - TY - JOUR ID - 1245 T1 - Regional status, epidemiology and impact of Taenia solium cysticercosis in Western and Central Africa A1 - Zoli,A. A1 - Shey-Njila,O. A1 - Assana,E. A1 - Nguekam,J.P. A1 - Dorny,P. A1 - Brandt,J. A1 - Geerts,S. Y1 - 2003/06// RP - NOT IN FILE SP - 35 EP - 42 JF - Acta Tropica JA - Acta Trop. VL - 87 IS - 1 N2 - In West Africa, Taenia solium cysticercosis in both pigs and man has been reported in Benin, Burkina-Faso, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Senegal and Togo, and although official data are lacking, T. solium is anticipated to be present in most of the pig-raising regions of other West African countries as well. In some regions of Nigeria, the prevalence of porcine cysticercosis and human taeniosis is quite high (20.5 and 8.6%, respectively). Surprisingly, however, no cases of human cysticercosis have been reported, although epilepsy is very common. Large epidemiological surveys have only been carried out in Togo and Benin, where the prevalence of human cysticercosis was 2.4 and 1.3%, respectively. In Central Africa, porcine and human cysticercosis are (hyper)-endemic in Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon. The parasite also has been reported in pigs in Chad and Angola. Cysticercosis has been shown to be one of the major causes of epilepsy in Cameroon with figures as high as 44.6%. Cameroon is one of the few countries where the taeniosis-cysticercosis complex has been examined more in detail. In the Western province of Cameroon large scale surveys have shown that active cysticercosis is present in 0.4-3% of the local population and in 11% of the village pigs. However, the prevalence of adult T. solium was only 0.1%, which underscores the frequency of the T. solium paradox. Based on the available information, a very conservative economic estimate indicates that the annual losses due to porcine cysticercosis in 10 West and Central African countries amount to about 25 million Euro. The financial losses due to human cysticercosis are very difficult to estimate, but are certainly exceeded by the social impact of the disease, especially because of the particular perception of epilepsy in many African communities. It is concluded that the true prevalence of T. solium cysticercosis in pigs and humans in Central and West Africa remains underestimated because of unreliable slaughterhouse data and the lack of awareness and diagnostic facilities in the public health sector AD - Faculty of Agronomy and Agricultural Science, P.O. Box 222, University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon UR - PM:12781376 ER -